Learn key MCAT concepts about motivation and identity, plus practice questions and answers
Part 1: Introduction
The world is filled with many diverse people with different personalities, different identities, and different motivations. Our motivation to do certain things plays a large role in how we behave and what personalities we adopt and can even come to shape how we see ourselves and how others see us.
This content covered by this portion of the MCAT can seem deceptively easy at first, but there are quite a few theories and terms to keep track of. In this guide, we will break down the main concepts you need to know for the MCAT and provide real-life examples similar to those you will see on exam day. Most terms that are bolded throughout the guide will be defined in Part 5 of the guide, but feel free to create your own terms and definitions/examples as you progress!
Along with knowing the terms and concepts, you will also need to know how to apply them to real-life situations that the MCAT will present. At the end of this guide, there is an MCAT-style passage and standalone questions that will test your knowledge of the covered topics.
Here we go!
Part 2: Motivation
a] Intrinsic and extrinsic locus
Motivation is like an invisible force that drives us to act in a certain way and achieve certain goals. Humans are motivated by different sources to do different things. We are motivated to seek out food because our body sends us hunger signals. We are motivated to dress nicely for an interview because it will help us get into medical school.
Our motivation can be either intrinsic or extrinsic, depending on its source, goal, and drive.
Intrinsic motivation is directed by internal rewards or one’s internal desire to do something for its own sake. The activity is inherently rewarding, such as watching your favorite Netflix show, or challenging, such as the career in medicine you are excited about. Intrinsic motivation leads to high productivity and high quality of work because the person is invested in the task itself and not the rewards that come from it.
Extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, is directed by external rewards from the environment. The person is only willing to do the task because it offers some sort of reward, such as receiving money, food, or the avoidance of punishment. For example, employers will offer promotions, bonuses, paid vacations, and other benefits to keep their employees from leaving the company. The employee only continues to work because of these benefits. The locus of control here is external, as it is in the hands of the employer. Even if productivity is high under extrinsic motivation, the quality of work declines over time, and resentment grows.
For the MCAT, you will have to be able to identify the differences between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Here’s a table that briefly summarizes the points made above.
Figure: Intrinsic and extrinsic motivators pursue different goals and outcomes.
An individual’s self-concept is deeply shaped by factors such as self-esteem, self-efficacy, and perceived locus of control. Self-esteem refers to the perception of one’s identity, self-respect, and role in society. Self-efficacy refers to the perceived capabilities and independence within society. If an individual believes that a situation is out of their control and is deeply influenced by other factors, they can be thought of as relying on an external locus of control. Alternatively, an individual with an internal locus of control may think of themselves as very self-sufficient and capable, thereby holding a highly positive self-concept. Perception of self may also be deeply influenced by the identities of others in primary or reference groups. [For more information on this, be sure to refer toour guide on social psychology.]
To manage self-impressions to either ourselves or to others, we may also perform attributional processes. There are two key attributional processes to consider: the self-serving bias and the fundamental attribution error.
The self-serving bias explains how individuals explain their own successes or failures. If an individual is successful at a task, they are more likely to attribute that to an internal locus of control [such as their own hard work and dedication]. If an individual fails at a task, they are more likely to attribute that to an external locus of control [such as through making excuses for themselves or blaming others]. The fundamental attribution error states that individuals are more likely to attribute the failures of others to inherent personality faults.
These attributions tend to be deeply influenced by cultural values. For instance, in the United States and some Western cultures, success and failure are emphasized as individual efforts. Thus, the resulting success or failure is often attributed to an internal locus of control.
b] Theories of motivation
How do we understand our basic and higher needs and translate them into motivators? The MCAT will test your knowledge on several theories of motivation, many of which are detailed below.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
You may be familiar with this pyramid-shaped figure, in which the base is wider than the top. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs emphasizes the attainment of “lower” needs [depicted at the base of the pyramid] before “higher” needs can be attained.
Under this theory, all humans have certain needs that must be met in order to achieve their full potential, but certain needs must be fulfilled before others. The last need that humans can achieve in their lifetime—which is rarely met—is self-personalization, or self-actualization.
Drive reduction theory
This theory, developed by behaviorist Clark Hull, states that the body works to maintain homeostasis [a state of physiological equilibrium] through behavior. For example, imagine the weather outside is extremely hot. Your body begins to sweat, but that alone isn’t enough. Your brain also sends a message to the rest of the body to take your jacket off and seek shade. Similarly, if it’s really cold outside, your body begins to shiver and form goosebumps, but that autonomic response alone isn’t enough. Your brain also sends a message to your body to wear layers and find a warm latte to drink. By motivating certain behaviors, the brain allows our body to fulfill its needs.
Drive reduction theory says that all motivation arises from the goal of fulfilling these biological needs, or drives. These drives can include hunger, thirst, temperature, and other biological needs. These drives create an unpleasant state of tension, and to reduce this drive we become motivated to fulfill the need at hand. This is particularly advantageous from an evolutionary standpoint, as it ensures that organisms can alter behaviors to fulfill needs and survive.
Instinct theory
How do birds know to fly south during the winter? Instinct theory says that we are all born with instincts, or innate tendencies for certain behaviors, that enable us to survive. Instincts must be: 1] unlearned and innate, and 2] occur in a similar fashion across the entire species. These instincts are what help us achieve certain goals that ensure our survival.
Arousal theory
Why is it that some days you feel like going to the club and dancing, while other days you feel like curling up on the couch with hot chocolate and a movie? What motivates us toward these drastically different activities and behaviors?
Arousal theory states that each person has an optimal level of arousal, and that we are motivated to pursue behaviors that will help us maintain this optimal level. If our arousal levels are higher than normal, we become motivated to seek out behaviors that will reduce our arousal. For example, you go out with friends for a night on the town but you start to get overstimulated. You might become more motivated to choose something relaxing to do, like taking a nap, in order to bring your arousal levels back down to normal.
Arousal theory is similar to drive-reduction theory in that both aim to maintain homeostasis, but arousal theory focuses on maintaining optimal arousal, whereas drive-reduction theory focuses on maintaining homeostasis by reducing tension.
Incentive theory
Incentive theory is quite different from the other theories of motivation we have already discussed. While other theories use the maintenance of self as motivation for behavior, incentive theory states that behavior is motivated by the individual’s environment through rewards—for instance, through extrinsic motivation. Incentive theory, which is heavily based on behaviorism, says that people are motivated to behave in ways that lead to rewards [such as food and money] and are demotivated from behaving in ways that lead to negative consequences [such as fines and criminal punishment].
For example, young children might be motivated to do their homework because their teacher promised them an ice cream party. On the contrary, they are motivated to refrain from calling each other names because the teacher would place them in timeout.
Social cognitive theory
Social cognitive theory states that behavior is deeply influenced by cognitive processes and the social context in which behaviors are made. A psychologist named Albert Bandura proposed this model, with a heavy emphasis on the idea that these factors all hold reciprocal influences on one another.
Thus, an individual’s behavior is deeply influenced by cognitive and situational factors. Additionally, cognitive factors are deeply influenced by behavior and situational context, and the situational context within an environment is reciprocally influenced by behavior and cognitive context.
Elaboration likelihood model
The elaboration likelihood model can be applied to situations of persuasion, in which one individual must motivate another to perform a behavior or task. The elaboration likelihood model states that persuasion occurs through two simultaneous pathways.
The first pathway can be considered the central route. The central route includes the logical characteristics of the persuasive argument and the rational arguments it presents.
The second pathway can be considered the peripheral route. The peripheral route includes additional factors that do not affect the central argument, such as the physical appearance of the speaker and the use of props. While these visual cues do not directly affect the message presented in the central route, they can serve to improve any emotional components of attitudes held by the target audience.
c] Attitudes
Attitudes have a deep influence on decision-making. Attitudes are particular thoughts, feelings, and evaluations toward other components in the environment. Attitudes are formed from three components: an affective component, a behavioral component, and a cognitive component.
The affective component of an attitude refers to an emotional response, or feelings. The behavioral component of an attitude refers to the external behaviors displayed. Lastly, the cognitive component of an attitude refers to logical reasoning, beliefs, and knowledge-based evaluations.
Note that behavior and attitude are intrinsically linked: attitudes can be affected by behavioral components, and behavior can be affected by attitudes. This can be observed by the foot-in-the-door phenomenon, in which small tasks are asked of an individual to increase the likelihood of performing a larger task. A related phenomenon is the door-in-the-face effect, in which an overwhelmingly large task is asked of an individual to increase the likelihood of performing a relatively smaller task.
Both of these examples illustrate the impact of behavior in changing an attitude. Attitudes can also be shaped by role-playing and cognitive dissonance. Cognitive dissonance occurs as two or more beliefs in the cognitive component of an attitude begin to directly contradict one another. Cognitive dissonance is usually resolved by adding an additional cognitive belief [for instance, a belief in conspiracy theories or false information] or modifying a previously existing belief.
Part 3: Self-identity
How does our sense of self and identity change as we age? You likely do not have the same understanding of the world and yourself as you did at 5 or 13 years of age. How does this understanding change as we mature?
An individual’s identity may be composed of many different components: such as race, ethnicity, gender, age, sexual orientation, and socioeconomic status. It’s important to note that a person’s gender identity is considered to be independent of chromosomal sex. An individual may require several years to determine their gender identity and may feel alienated or experience gender dysphoria if they are not recognized and accepted by other individuals in society.
An individual’s identity is also deeply affected by the surrounding environment and interactions with others. The theory of the looking-glass self states that society’s perception of an individual—which can be thought of as a reflection in a mirror—will ultimately affect the way the individual perceives themselves. This is related to the theory of the “I” and the “me,” in which the “me” of an individual represents the perception of how society perceives the individual, and the “I” describes the individual as a response to the “me.” These two elements of the self—the perceived image and its reaction—continually respond to one another.
The imitation of role models and other individuals in society can also deeply affect the perception of self. This can manifest in role-taking, in which an individual assumes an unfamiliar role, then gradually adapts to the responsibilities of the role. Ultimately, the individual will identify with the new role and incorporate it into their perception of self.
In certain situations, it may be desirable for an individual to augment positive components of themself while downplaying negative components. This is known as impression management. It can be deeply affected by the perceived environment we are in; an individual may be more likely to perform impression management in high-stakes or stressful situations, such as an interview.
While psychologists have been studying the development of self-identity for a very long time, there is no unified theory on how this progresses. The following theories will offer differing perspectives on this topic. This is a very high-yield topic on the MCAT. You should be familiar with the names, age ranges, and typical features of each of the various stages of development.
a] Freud’s theory of psychosexual development
Freud believed that completing each stage of development was important in forming a mature adult. Under this theory, each stage of life is oriented around resolving libido, or a center of pleasure. If needs are not met or if any issue or conflict remains unresolved at any stage, the person reaches psychological fixation in that stage, in which they remain focused in that stage and are unable to move onto the next. The individual typically will carry the behaviors and actions of that stage with them into adulthood. Let’s take a look at what these 5 psychosexual stages are and what fixation looks like in each of these stages.
Stage 1: Oral
Stage of life: Infancy
Age: birth-1 year
The oral stage is the first stage of psychosexual development. In this stage, the libido is focused in the baby’s mouth and pleasure is derived from oral stimulation. The baby receives most pleasure by putting things in its mouth, an explanation for why this stage is most oriented around biting, suckling, and breastfeeding. Fixation in this stage could lead to the individual becoming over-dependent and aggressive in adulthood and engaging in orally stimulating behaviors [such as excessive eating, drinking, smoking, and nail-biting].
Stage 2: Anal
Stage of Life: Early childhood
Age: 1-3 years
The anal stage is the second stage of psychosexual development. In this stage, the libido becomes focused in the toddler’s anus, and pleasure is derived from excreting fecal matter. In this stage, the toddler starts to learn control and begins to see themselves as an independent individual. They begin to potty train and learn to respond to society’s demands. Fixation in this stage leads to “anal retentive” behavior, where the individual becomes excessively detail-oriented and seeks out extreme order & cleanliness in their lives.
Stage 3: Phallic
Stage of Life: Preschool
Age: 3-6 years
The phallic stage is when the child starts to differentiate into male or female identity and becomes aware of their own sexuality. Their libido is now focused on their desire for the opposite sex. Infamously, this desire is purported to manifest with the parent of the opposite sex. The Oedipus complex describes a young boy’s feelings of guilt and fear that come with a young boy’s attraction to his mother and simultaneous feelings of hostility towards his father. The Electra complex describes the contrary, a young girl’s attraction to her father and hostility towards her mother. In addition, Freud suggested that girls come to the devastating realization that they don’t have a penis [penis envy] and blame their mother. Fixation in this stage can lead to relationship problems in the future, typically resulting from adult personalities that are overly narcissistic, vain, sexually aggressive, or incapable of close love.
Stage 4: Latency
Stage of Life: School-age
Age: 6-12 years
The latency stage is when sexual interests start to decline and the libido is focused on developing friendships, social skills, and hobbies. The child continues development into a more holistic and independent individual. They start to lose their Oedipus or Electra complex because they realize those desires will remain unfulfilled, and therefore begin to identify with the parent of the same sex.
Stage 5: Genital
Stage of Life: Adolescence
Age: 12-18 years
The genital stage is the final stage of psychosexual development. In this stage, sexual interests begin to rise again. The libido is focused on fulfilling the needs of others. The teenager learns to deal maturely with the opposite sex and begins to form their own identity while letting go of old dependencies. According to Freud, fixation in this stage can lead to fetishes, homosexuality, and asexuality in the future.
It is worth noting that the theories of Freud have been largely discredited. However, his theories spurred many other psychologists to develop their own theories and perspectives on identity development.
b] Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development
Similar to Freud, Erikson believed that development occurred in stages and that each stage presented a dilemma or psychosocial crisis that needed to be resolved in order to develop a healthy personality. Each stage is also characterized by a virtue, or trait that is acquired upon successful development at each stage. These crises are psychosocial because they often involve a direct conflict between the individual’s needs [psycho-] and society’s expectations [-social]. Here are the 8 psychosocial stages that Erikson postulated.
Stage 1: Trust vs. mistrust
Stage of Life: Infancy
Age: birth-1 year
Basic Virtue: Hope
In this first stage, the infant looks to its caregiver for consistent and stable care. If these needs are met, the infant will develop trust in the caregiver and carry that trust and hope to other relationships. If these needs are not met, the infant will grow to develop mistrust, anxiety, and suspicion in future relationships.
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. shame & doubt
Stage of Life: Early childhood
Age: 1-3 years
Basic Virtue: Will
Children in this stage are beginning to gain a sense of self and autonomy. They are learning personal control over various physical skills [including playing with toys, putting on clothes, and potty training] and are beginning to assert autonomy. When the parents allow the child to explore that independence and allow room for failure, the child grows to have a healthy sense of self and a will to try new things. However, when the parents suffocate that independence and prevent any failure out of fear, the child develops overdependence on others, a lack of self-esteem, and debilitating self-doubt.
Stage 3: Initiative vs. guilt
Stage of Life: Preschool age
Age: 3-6 years
Basic Virtue: Purpose
In this stage, children begin to assert themselves through play and interactions with peers. When granted the opportunity to initiate activities through play, they learn interpersonal skills, feel secure in their leadership and decision-making abilities, and achieve a sense of purpose. When this is not fulfilled due to criticism or excessive control, the child develops a sense of guilt and shies away from pursuing any future initiatives.
Stage 4: Industry vs. inferiority
Stage of Life: School Age
Age: 6-12 years
Basic Virtue: Competency
In this stage, children start to learn to read and write, understand basic math, and do problems on their own. It is at this age that children seek the support and approval of their peers by demonstrating their skills. This helps them develop a sense of pride and competency. When the child feels that they are unable to live up to peer expectations in demonstrating certain skills, they begin to feel inferior.
Stage 5: Identity vs. role confusion
Stage of Life: Adolescence
Age: 12-18 years
Basic Virtue: Fidelity
Teens in this stage begin to search for a sense of self and personal identity by exploring their personal beliefs, values, and goals. In the process of exploring themselves, they begin to establish a sense of their own identity and role within society. They gain fidelity, or an ability to commit to others by accepting them despite ideological differences. Failure to do so can lead to role confusion, or an identity crisis about what function the individual fulfills in society. In response to this confusion, the individual may be tempted to experiment with multiple different lifestyles and assume a shapeless personality.
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. isolation
Stage of Life: Young adulthood
Age: 18-35 years
Basic Virtue: Love
Young adults in this stage begin to explore more intimate relationships with others, especially those leading to long-term commitments. Those who achieve this find a sense of commitment, intimacy, safety, and love in their relationship. However, those who avoid intimacy and fear commitment may become isolated, lonely, and depressed.
Stage 7: Generativity vs. stagnation
Stage of Life: Middle age
Age: 35-60 years
Basic Virtue: Care
Adults in this stage experience a need to make their mark on the world by creating or working on projects meant to outlast them. We aim to give back to society by raising children, being productive through work [generativity], and being involved in the community. It is through this productivity that adults in this stage feel a sense of belonging and care towards society. When we fail to find a way to contribute to society, we become stagnant, feel aimless, and become disconnected from the rest of working society.
Stage 8: Integrity vs. despair
Stage of Life: Old age
Age: 60+ years
Basic Virtue: Wisdom
In this final stage, individuals reflect back on their life achievements and events. If at that age we are able to look back at our life without regrets and feel proud of the successful and accomplished life we have lived, we develop a sense of integrity or wisdom, a sense of coherence and wholeness that comes from accepting our life’s journey. This also allows us to accept death without fear because we have accomplished everything we hoped to in life. If, however, we look back with a sense of guilt, regret, bitterness, or sense of unproductivity, one may become dissatisfied with life, develop depression, and start to fear death.
c] Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
While Freud and Erikson explored the development of traits and virtues, Kohlberg investigated personal development through the lens of changing moral reasoning. Kohlberg believed that individuals achieved different levels of maturity and moral understanding as they progressed through life. He used an infamous story known as the Heinz Dilemma, along with other situational interviews, as a way to understand how moral reasoning changed as individuals grew older. The Heinz Dilemma is outlined below:
Once upon a time, there was a poor man named Heinz. Heinz was so poor that he barely made enough money to afford food. Heinz’s wife was about to die from a rare disease, the cure to which was discovered by a local scientist. Heinz desperately tried to buy that drug from the scientist, but the scientist charged Heinz ten times the amount it took him to make the drug. Heinz worked extra shifts, asked friends and family for money, and starved himself in order to save money for the drug. Yet, he could only raise half the money required. Heinz tried to explain his situation to the scientist and begged for an extension or discount because otherwise, his wife would die. The scientist didn’t budge, saying that he deserved to profit from his years of hard work in discovering this drug. Heinz, out of desperation, broke into the scientist’s lab that night and stole the drug.
Given this context:
Should Heinz have stolen the drug?
Would the situation change if Heinz didn’t love his wife?
What if the person dying was a stranger, not his wife?
Should the police charge Heinz for robbery?
Should the police arrest the scientist for the wife’s death?
Kohlberg identified 3 distinct stages of moral reasoning, each with 2 substages. Each stage must be completed in order to progress to the next stage. Let’s explore these stages in further detail.
Stage 1: Pre-Conventional
At this stage, we don’t have a personal moral code. We adopt whatever our parents or authority tells us is right or wrong according to their rules and punishments. In the Heinz dilemma, a child in this stage might say that Heinz was wrong for stealing because it’s against the rules to steal, and therefore stealing is bad.
Substage 1: Obedience & Punishment Avoidance
First, the child obeys and does good in order to avoid punishment. The child automatically assumes that if someone is punished, they must have done something wrong.
Substage 2: Individualism & Self-Interest
At this age, the child begins to understand that different people have different viewpoints and will do what feels most beneficial to their own viewpoint out of self-interest.
Stage 2: Conventional
At this stage, we begin to internalize the norms and morals of our group, especially those of valued adult role models. We internalize authority without questioning them. In the Heinz dilemma, an individual in this stage might say that Heinz is fulfilling his duty as a husband and that while he was right to take the drug, he should turn himself in afterward out of respect for the law.
Substage 3: Conformity to Expectations
Individuals in this stage do good in order to be seen as a good person by others and win their approval.
Substage 4: Need to Uphold Laws and Social Order
Individuals in this stage uphold the law and other societal rules in order to avoid guilt.
Stage 3: Post-Conventional
In this final stage, individuals understand that right and wrong are not always clear and that it is often contextual or situational. Individual judgment becomes based on self-chosen morals and values, and reasoning is based on upholding individual rights and justice. In the Heinz dilemma, an individual in this stage might reason that the protection of life is more important than property rights, regardless of the law. Few people ever reach this stage because most tend to adopt the views of those around them and remain in the Conventional stage.
Substage 5: Greater Good
The individual at this stage becomes aware that while laws are in place to protect the greater good, there are often instances in which individuals are disadvantaged by the law.
Substage 6: Universal Ethics and Justice-Based Laws
At this final stage, people have developed their own sense of justice and moral guidelines, regardless of whether or not it fits the existing law. The individual is prepared to defend their moral views even if it means defying the rest of society to do so.
Here is a summary of Kohlberg’s Stages in response to the Heinz Dilemma. For the MCAT, you should be able to identify how someone in each stage would reason morally through different situations.
d] Vygotsky’s theory of sociocultural development
Remember when you were first learning to ride a bike? Most likely, you fell the first time you got on. But with the help of your parent or sibling or teacher, you were able to learn each step. Eventually, you internalized all of the necessary steps and rode for the first time without any help.
The guidance that teachers or elders provide is what enables learning more advanced functions. Vygotsky studied the role of social interaction in shaping cognitive development. He believed that children could learn to achieve a task if they interact with and learn from someone with a higher level of understanding and ability, termed a “more knowledgeable other” [MKO]. This MKO acts as a model of behavior through collaborative dialogue, and the child internalizes those behaviors to guide their own future behaviors.
Initially, children have four elementary mental functions [EMFs]:
Attention
Sensation
Perception
Memory
These elementary mental functions allow children to carry out the most basic of mental and physical tasks. But in order to achieve higher mental functions and learn more advanced concepts and tasks, the help of an MKO is needed in order to progress from these EMFs to higher mental functions [HMFs].
The zone of proximal development [ZPD] is the area of knowledge where the most important and sensitive instruction should be given. In other words, it is the link between being able to do something and not being able to do something. Guidance in the ZPD is the necessary push that allows the child to develop skills they already have in order to use them on their own and venture into skill areas they previously could not.
Part 4: Personality
Our personality includes many things that make us who we are. Personality encompasses our thoughts, our feelings, and our ways of thinking. It is a core component of who we consider ourselves to be. The following perspectives of personality offer several interpretations of how personality shapes us and vice versa.
a] Psychoanalytic perspective
The psychoanalytic perspective is Freud’s major contribution to psychology. His perspective focuses on the role of early childhood experiences and the unconscious mind in shaping personality. He believed dreams were a mirror into the soul and things hidden in the unconscious could be revealed through dreams and other means. Freud said that human behavior and personality are driven by two unconscious instincts: libido and death instinct. The libido is the life instinct that motivates survival, pleasure-seeking, and pain avoidance. The death instinct, on the other hand, is what motivates destructive and dangerous behaviors.
According to Freud, the human psyche is made up of 3 components: the id, ego, and superego.
The id is the pleasure center: it seeks reward [fueled by the libido] and avoids pain. In other words, when you’re trying to decide whether to spend the rest of the night studying for the MCAT or go partying with your friends, the id is gonna say, “let’s party!”
The superego serves the opposite role as the id. It is the center of moral judgment and perfection. While your id tells you to go party, your superego is what holds you back and tells you to study for the MCAT because it’s the “right thing to do.”
The ego is the mediator between the id and superego. The ego works to find compromise and balance between these two centers. The ego would say something like, “let’s study for 2 hours, then we can go party for the remainder of the night.” These 3 components of the psyche inhabit different portions of the conscious, subconscious, and unconscious mind. They work together to make decisions and motivate behavior.
Only portions of the id, superego, and ego are part of the human mind. While the conscious mind is manifested by the ego and a portion of the superego, the id is much more primitive and only present in the unconscious mind.
b] Humanistic perspective
Unlike psychoanalytic theory, which says that the unconscious mind shapes people, the humanistic perspective says it’s the other way around. People shape their own mind and their own personality through free will and self-awareness. Carl Rogers believed that humans are inherently good and seek out growth, and that this motivation to seek growth is what shapes people’s personalities.
c] Social cognitive perspective
Albert Bandura, the primary contributor to the social cognitive perspective, said that learning through observation and social interaction plays a vital role in the development of the future self. In his famous Bobo Doll experiment, he showed that children mirrored the behaviors set as an example by elders. When adults punched and attacked the Bobo doll, the children mimicked the adults’ behavior and similarly attacked the Bobo doll. The results of this experiment were extremely important because they showed that negative personalities and traits, such as aggression, can be learned merely through observation. This means that young children who play violent video games or watch movies with adult content learn and engage in those behaviors.
d] Behaviorist perspective
B.F. Skinner, the founder of behaviorist psychology, believed that it is human nature to work towards rewards and avoid punishments. As such, he suggested through the behaviorist perspective that people’s personalities can be shaped by the environment and controlled by society through reinforcement. If we want to change our negative personality traits into positive traits, we must change our environment first. This is in stark contrast to the other personality perspectives, which state that personality comes mainly from within oneself.
e] Biological perspective
As the name suggests, the biological perspective [also known as trait perspective] says that personality is shaped largely by innate biological traits, or characteristics, that stay with us throughout life. By understanding these different traits in different individuals, we can better understand how they give rise to different personalities. The Big 5 [or OCEAN] model is an application of the trait perspective that aims to measure 5 major traits in order to determine what kind of personality an individual has. You should know what OCEAN stands for, what each trait means, and how low vs. high levels of that trait manifest.
Figure: The “Big 5,” or OCEAN, personality traits.
f] Dramaturgical perspective
Erving Goffman used a theater metaphor to describe how people in the real world act differently in different contexts--just as actors behave one way backstage and another way onstage.
The dramaturgical perspective states that our personality takes on a “frontstage” and “backstage” role depending on our surroundings. Frontstage refers to our actions that are seen by others, while backstage refers to our actions that no one sees. Just as an actor is expected to play a certain role and act in a certain way when onstage, we are also expected to follow certain behaviors when we are frontstage. For example, think about how a doctor must act in front of patients and their families. They must use their frontstage personality and show professionalism, empathy, and care. However, once the play is over and the actor goes backstage, they can relax because they are no longer being observed. Similarly, once the doctor takes off the white coat and goes home, they are now backstage and no longer have to act in the same professional manner. They can relax and let their “true self” come out.
Part 5: High-yield terms
Intrinsic motivation: directed by internal rewards, or one’s internal desire to do something for its own sake
Extrinsic motivation: directed by external rewards from the environment; completing a task because it offers some sort of reward, such as receiving money, food, or the avoidance of punishment
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: emphasizes the attainment of “lower” needs [depicted at the base of the pyramid], before “higher” needs can be attained
Self-actualization: the last need that humans can achieve in their lifetime, according to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Drive reduction theory: says that all motivation arises from the goal of fulfilling these biological needs, or drives
Drives: natural needs that include hunger, thirst, temperature, and other biological needs
Instinct theory: states that we are all born with instincts, or innate tendencies for certain behaviors, that enable us to survive
Arousal theory: states that each person has an optimal level of arousal, and we are motivated to pursue behaviors that will help us maintain this optimal level
Incentive theory: says that people are motivated to behave in ways that lead to rewards [such as food and money] and are demotivated from behaving in ways that lead to negative consequences [such as fines and criminal punishment]
Freud’s theory of psychosexual development: involves 5 stages that are each oriented around resolving libido; fixation in a stage results in psychological disorder and inability to progress to the next stage
Oedipus complex: proposed by Freud; describes a young boy’s feelings of guilt and fear that come with a young boy’s attraction to his mother and simultaneous feelings of hostility towards his father
Electra complex: proposed by Freud; describes a young girl’s attraction to her father and hostility towards her mother
Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development: involves 8 psychosocial stages that require the resolution between the individual’s needs [psycho-] and society’s expectations [-social]
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development: describes different levels of maturity and moral understanding as individuals progress through life
Vygotsky’s theory of sociocultural development: describes the role of learning from a more knowledgeable other, who guides an individual through applying mental functions in the zone of proximal development
Zone of proximal development: area of knowledge where the most important and sensitive instruction should be given; the link between being able to do something and not being able to do something
Psychoanalytic perspective: Freud’s major contribution to psychology; states that the human psyche is made up of 3 components: the id, ego, and superego.
Humanistic perspective: states that humans are inherently good and seek out growth, and that this motivation to seek growth is what shapes people’s personalities
Social cognitive perspective: states that learning through observation and social interaction plays a vital role in the development of the future self
Behaviorist perspective: states that people’s personalities can be shaped by the environment and controlled by society through reinforcement
Biological perspective: states that personality is shaped largely by innate biological traits, or characteristics, that stay with us throughout life
Dramaturgical perspective: states that our behaviors and actions change depending on a frontstage or backstage context; frontstage refers to our actions that are seen by others, while backstage refers to our actions that no one sees
Part 6: Passage-based questions and answers
Studies show that human adults use a range of social cues to obtain information about potential partners in cooperative contexts. Adult individuals prefer partners who are competent and generous and those who abide by moral and social rules. One factor that carries particular weight is whether a prospective partner is deemed to be fair or just.
Researchers are interested in whether children share this preference for fair partners and, if so, whether a prospective partner’s past fair behavior influences children’s behavior in a cooperative dilemma.
An inequity game was used to mimic a cooperative dilemma. In this game, both the participant and actor have one piece of candy. The actor can choose to split the candy evenly [equal category], take both pieces of candy [disadvantageous category], or all candy to the partner [advantageous category]. The partner can then choose to accept or reject the actor’s offer.
To conduct the experiment, participants between the ages of six and nine years old were asked to play a game modeling the prisoner’s dilemma with a partner who had previously played the inequity game with actors. Participants were told if the prospective partner had made equal, advantageous, or disadvantageous decisions during the inequity game. Based on this information about the past behavior of these prospective partners, the participants were asked to choose which partner they would rather play the current game with: the partner who accepted the actor’s allocation or the partner who rejected the actor’s allocation. Results from the experiment are shown below.
Question 1: Which of the following best describes the type of study described in the passage?
A] Cohort study
B] Case study
C] Longitudinal study
D] Experimental study
Question 2: Which of the following parameters do the researchers NOT account for in this study?
A] Age
B] Construct Validity
C] External Validity
D] Prior decision-making
Question 3: In a follow-up study, researchers discover that Asian participants reject less disadvantageous allocations than White participants. This result is best explained by which of the following?
A] Libido
B] Reinforcement
C] Stereotype threat
D] Ethnocentrism
Question 4: Which of the following conclusions is NOT supported by the results shown in Figure 1?
A] Older children are less likely to choose someone who rejected advantageous allocations.
B] Children prefer to play with partners who accepted allocations.
C] Children prioritize the efficiency of partnerships over fairness.
D] There is no significant difference between younger and older children in preference of participants who rejected disadvantageous allocations.
Answer key for passage-based questions
Answer choice D is correct. An experimental study has a control variable allowing the researcher to measure the change in one variable in relation to another [choice D is correct]. A longitudinal study follows the same subjects over a long period of time [choice C is incorrect]. A cohort study is a type of longitudinal study in which the subjects are chosen because they share something in common within a given period of time [choice A is incorrect]. Finally, a case study analyzes a few hand-picked subjects at great depth to gain a detailed understanding of their experiences and etiology [choice B is incorrect].
Answer choice C is correct. In the study above, researchers used participants in a single age group [choice A is incorrect]. The study possesses construct validity as the study measures what it claims to measure [choice B is incorrect]. Prior decision-making is the independent variable in this study [choice D is incorrect]. External validity is not achieved in this study because the extent to which this study can be generalized to the outside world is limited [choice C is correct]. For example, individuals in real life will often be in the presence of the individual when choosing them and will likely not be making a choice solely on the basis of fairness.
Answer choice C is correct. Stereotype threat refers to decreased quality of performance as the result of individuals’ anxiety about conforming to a negative stereotype about their social group. In this case, Asians are more at risk than Whites to conform to the stereotype that Asians are passive and harmony-seeking [choice C is correct]. Libido refers to the life instinct that motivates survival, pleasure-seeking, and pain avoidance, as explained by Freud [choice A is incorrect]. Reinforcement is a way of learning described by behaviorists that places a large importance on the role of reward and punishment in shaping behavior [choice B is incorrect]. Finally, ethnocentrism is the use of standards from one’s own culture to judge other cultures, beliefs, and peoples [choice D is incorrect].
Answer choice A is correct. According to the graph, the proportion at which children choose the rejector is less than 50% in every group, which means that children more often choose the acceptor [choice B is incorrect]. Participants chose the acceptor more than 50% of the time, despite the fairness of the skittle division [advantageous vs. disadvantageous], inferring that efficiency of completing the deal [acceptor] is more prioritized than lack of efficiency [rejector] [choice C is incorrect]. The error bars of both younger & older children who chose disadvantageous rejectors overlap, indicating that there is no significant difference between the two groups [choice D is incorrect].
Part 7: Standalone practice questions and answers
Question 1: Which of the following statements illustrates positive intrinsic motivation?
A] “I want to study psychology because I want a high score on this section of the MCAT.”
B] “I want to study psychology because I think it’s an interesting subject.”
C] “I want to study psychology because I will fail the midterm if I don’t.”
D] “I don’t want to study psychology because I find it boring.”
Question 2: Vineeth has started high school and decides to change his fashion sense, dye his hair, and try out for new clubs on campus. What stage of psychosocial development is he most likely experiencing?
A] Trust vs. mistrust
B] Intimacy vs. isolation
C] Identity vs. role confusion
D] Industry vs. inferiority
Question 3: Carlo, a 5-year-old boy, hit his younger sister after observing a video game character doing the same. Which personality perspective best explains this interaction?
A] Psychoanalytic
B] Social cognitive
C] Humanistic
D] Behaviorist
Question 4: Erica is an outgoing young woman who copes well with stress by maintaining order and responsibility in her life. Which combination of traits best describes Erica’s personality?
A] High extraversion, low neuroticism, high conscientiousness
B] Low agreeableness, high neuroticism, low conscientiousness
C] Low extraversion, low neuroticism, low openness
D] High extraversion, high neuroticism, low conscientiousness
Answer key for standalone questions
Answer choice B is correct. Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation that comes from an individual’s personal desires, without any external reward or threat [choice B is correct]. Standardized exams are examples of external sources of motivation [choices A and C are incorrect]. Boredom is an example of negative motivation [choice D is incorrect].
Answer choice C is correct. Vineeth, like many high schoolers, is at the age where peer pressure plays a huge role in how we identify ourselves. We are motivated to try out different things and be a part of different groups in order to discover what our true identity is. If stuck in this stage, this can lead to role confusion down the line. This stage is described as identity vs. role confusion [choice C is correct]. Trust vs. mistrust occurs during the first stage of life, in infancy [choice A is incorrect]. Intimacy vs. isolation occurs around 20-30 years of life [choice B is incorrect]. Industry vs. inferiority conflict begins at about six years of age and continues until the onset of puberty [choice D is incorrect].
Answer choice B is correct. Social cognitive theory, developed by Bandura, says that individuals develop their personality and behavior by watching the actions of adults or others around them. In Carlo’s case, the violent video game was what influenced his behavior [choice B is correct]. Psychoanalytic theory, developed by Freud, describes how the unconscious mind shapes our everyday actions and personality [choice A is incorrect]. The humanistic theory, developed by Rogers explains that free will allows humans to achieve true goodness [choice C is incorrect]. Finally, behaviorist theory, developed by Skinner suggests, that personalities can be shaped directly by the environment through reward and punishment [choice D is incorrect]
Answer choice A is correct. Erica is an outgoing [extroverted] young woman and demonstrates high extroversion [choice C is incorrect]. Erica copes well with stress, thus demonstrating low neuroticism [choice B is incorrect]. Finally, Erica is organized and orderly, demonstrating high conscientiousness [choice D is incorrect].