What is the most basic level of ethical development?
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Lawrence Kohlberg’s stages of moral development, a comprehensive stage theory of moral development based on
Jean Piaget’s theory of moral judgment for children (1932) and developed by Lawrence Kohlberg in 1958. Cognitive in nature, Kohlberg’s theory focuses on the thinking process that occurs
when one decides whether a behaviour is right or wrong. Thus, the theoretical emphasis is on how one decides to respond to a moral dilemma, not what one decides or what one actually does. Kohlberg’s theory, though extremely influential, was based on research that used only boys as subjects. In the 1980s the theory was criticized by the American psychologist
Carol Gilligan for universalizing patterns of moral development exhibited by boys and ignoring the distinct patterns characteristic of girls. The framework of Kohlberg’s theory consists of six stages arranged sequentially in successive tiers of complexity. He
organized his six stages into three general levels of moral development. At the preconventional level, morality is externally controlled. Rules imposed by authority figures are conformed to in order to avoid punishment or receive rewards. This perspective
involves the idea that what is right is what one can get away with or what is personally satisfying. Level 1 has two stages. Stage 1: Punishment/obedience orientationBehaviour is determined by consequences. The individual will obey in order to avoid punishment. Stage 2: Instrumental purpose orientationBehaviour is determined again by consequences. The individual focuses on receiving rewards or satisfying personal needs. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. Subscribe Now Level 2: Conventional levelAt the conventional level, conformity to social rules remains important to the individual. However, the emphasis shifts from self-interest to relationships with other people and social systems. The individual strives to support rules that are set forth by others such as parents, peers, and the government in order to win their approval or to maintain social order. Stage 3: Good Boy/Nice Girl orientationBehaviour is determined by social approval. The individual wants to maintain or win the affection and approval of others by being a “good person.” Stage 4: Law and order orientationSocial rules and laws determine behaviour. The individual now takes into consideration a larger perspective, that of societal laws. Moral decision making becomes more than consideration of close ties to others. The individual believes that rules and laws maintain social order that is worth preserving. Level 3: Postconventional or principled levelAt the postconventional level, the individual moves beyond the perspective of his or her own society. Morality is defined in terms of abstract principles and values that apply to all situations and societies. The individual attempts to take the perspective of all individuals. Stage 5: Social contract orientationIndividual rights determine behaviour. The individual views laws and rules as flexible tools for improving human purposes. That is, given the right situation, there are exceptions to rules. When laws are not consistent with individual rights and the interests of the majority, they do not bring about good for people and alternatives should be considered. Stage 6: Universal ethical principle orientationAccording to Kohlberg, this is the highest stage of functioning. However, he claimed that some individuals will never reach this level. At this stage, the appropriate action is determined by one’s self-chosen ethical principles of conscience. These principles are abstract and universal in application. This type of reasoning involves taking the perspective of every person or group that could potentially be affected by the decision. Basic tenets of Kohlberg’s theoryThe numerous studies investigating moral reasoning based on Kohlberg’s theory have confirmed basic tenets regarding the topic area. Cross-sectional data have shown that older individuals tend to use higher stages of moral reasoning when compared with younger individuals, while longitudinal studies report “upward” progression, in accordance with Kohlberg’s theoretical order of stages. In addition, studies have revealed that comprehension of the stages is cumulative (e.g., if a person understands stage 3, he or she understands the lower stages but not necessarily the higher stages), and comprehension of higher stages is increasingly difficult. Moreover, age trends in moral development have received cross-cultural support. Lastly, data support the claim that every individual progresses through the same sequence of development; however, the rates of development will vary. Measurement of moral developmentSince the development of Kohlberg’s theory, a number of measurement tools that purport to measure moral reasoning have been constructed. Kohlberg’s Moral Judgment Interview (1969) is a rather lengthy structured interview requiring trained interviewers and scorers. Another instrument is the Defining Issues Test developed by James Rest (1974). These measures, ranging from projective tests to structured, objective assessments, all consist of a set of hypothetical stories involving moral dilemmas. Cheryl E. Sanders The Editors of Encyclopaedia BritannicaIn which level of ethical development does a person move?Level 3: Postconventional or principled level
At the postconventional level, the individual moves beyond the perspective of his or her own society. Morality is defined in terms of abstract principles and values that apply to all situations and societies.
What are the stages that individuals typically develop ethical standards?There are three levels of ethical development. They are preconventional, conventional, and postconventional morality.
Which of the following ethical theories states that the most ethical choice?Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that determines right from wrong by focusing on outcomes. It is a form of consequentialism. Utilitarianism holds that the most ethical choice is the one that will produce the greatest good for the greatest number.
Which of the following ethical theories believes that people should abide by their obligations?The deontological theory states that people should adhere to their obligations and duties when analyzing an ethical dilemma.
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